Azt Pricing Decision Essay Example for Free

Azt Pricing Decision EssayIn 1986, Burroughs-Wellcome Company introduced the first major breakthrough against acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( support). It was the life-prolonging medicine AZT. The product has glum egress to be very successful for the company and, largely because of AZTs success,Burroughs-Wellcomes profits have doubled in the three long time ending in 1988. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) plans to expand the authorization for the drugs usage to those who are infected with the AIDS virus, but not yet showing signs of serious illness. The estimate of the size of this market is hundreds of thousands rather than the tens of thousand who are currently sick with AIDS (1988).The controversy over the drug centers on its price. AZT costs about $8,600 for a years supply for each patient (lowered from $10,000 in 1987). Critics in the gay, medical, and legal communities contend that Burroughs-Wellcome executives are corporate extortionists. Some believe that the company has already made too much money at the expense of the sick. The price is so far out of reach of indigent and moderate-income people that the federal government had to step in with subsidies of millions of dollars.Burroughs-Wellcome defends it pricing practices by stating that its profit margins (in the 50-70 percent range) are in line with those companies introducing smart drugs. They contend these heights returns are necessary to finance research and recoup the millions of dollars invested in developing the drug. They initially gave the drug free-of-charge to as many as 5,000 AIDS patients and spent $80 million on a new plant.Additional criticism revolves around the actual development of the drug. The Wall Street Journal stated, nevertheless Wellcomes moral position is undercut by its relatively minor role in the creation of AZT. Researchers at the Michigan Cancer Foundation, from West Germany, and at the National Cancer Institute are credited with the major discove ries that led to AZT.Nevertheless, Wellcome performed toxicology, pharmacology, and animal studies before AZT was given to the first human volunteer. It also financed the titanic clinical trial and bankrolled the give-away to the patients in the initial experiment.Wellcome is under pressure to cut its price. The government is attempting to institute a reasonable price clause where an unduly high price could trigger a government order for a company to open its books. Any company found in violation could be sued for let out of contract. Congress is also studying AZT and one Congressman wrote the company contending that the original price rationale (achieving a decent return on enthronement during a short product life) no longer exists as the drug has been on the market for three years and the market is growing for the product.

Childhood Essay Example for Free

Childhood Es assureThough many are of the view that childhood is the happiest time of a persons life I do not ideate we can generalize it is so. Of cause childhood is a very enjoyable phase in a mans life which is free from many responsibilities and challenges of the adulthood. However I believe on that point are several conditions that need to be satisfied for a happy childhood. First and foremost, a child should have loving and feel for parents who could provide physical, emotional, social and intellectual needs of their child. How many children have such parents today? There are thousands of children raised by foster homes or orphanages. nearly of these children have never experienced the love of their mothers or fathers. In fact many a them even do not know who their parents are. These children are very much deprived from many privileges and rights of a normal child. We could also see that the numbers of single parents are ever increasing due to various socio economic re asons. It is a known fact that single parents have to struggle hard to raise their children without the help of their partner and in most cases they fail to provide necessary requirements of their children, oddly with respect to emotional factors.The security of the child is another important factor that decides whether the childhood is a happy one or not. In my country there was a civil war which spanned for thirty years and fortunately became to an end in the last year. The children who were born during these thirty years of war were raised under its dark shadows. In most families, the fathers had to join the army to fight against the terrorists. Many did not return home leaving endless problems for their families.There were frequent flunk blasts directed on civilians by the terrorists and in many instances children were victims. Also the children in the areas under terrorist control were abducted by the terrorists to strengthen their carders. These children were completely dep rived from all their rights as children. They were neither allowed to be with their loved ones nor to attend school. Instead they were given a gun and trained to fire at the enemy. They were taught to hate not to love. How can we say that the childhood is the happiest time for such children?

Study On The Guidance From The Nmc Nursing Essay

Study On The Guidance From The Nmc Nursing EssayThe Royal College of Nursing (RCN, 1981) and the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC, 2004 2008) described the word accountability as cardinals tariff to somebody or for something, in this case nurses be account fitted to the longanimouss, the employers and the NMC principles. Responsibility is being account subject for ones action or omission to longanimouss in our c arefulness. Whereas Sempre line of fix argued that responsibility relates to ones accountability to what one does and accountability is one responsible to the consequence of what one does (2003). Nurses are accountable to the NMC which legislates and regulates all nurses, midwives and specialist community nurses in the get together Kingdom and it is the responsible of all registrant to abide to its principle. Therefore, the author forget weave the tapestry of this essay to demonstrate that the NMC (2008) guidance may appear simple alone it is a difficult respons ibility to fulfil by nurses in practice. As the guideline relates to the first paragraph of the principles of The commandment, firstly, trust in relation to caring of patients health and wellbeing will be defined and the discussion will posit around the kind treatment of the patients as various(prenominal)s without discrimination, respecting their self-regard and be an advocate for them whilst they are in the nursing care. Secondly, respecting their right to confidentiality as is of paramount importance and it is enshrined in the Data Protection Act (1989) and also the benevolent Right Act (1989) which makes it legal. Confidentiality will be defined and note that patients information cannot be disclosed without the patients consent. Thirdly, for nurses to respect the dignity of patients, to advocate for them and respect their confidentiality nurses must be able to use healing(p) communications to get the necessary information and nurses must be able to communicate with other h ealth professionals to support the patients in their care. Nurses must be able to communicate with the patient in a language that is understood by the patient. Fourthly, the principle of ethics in the discharging of the roles of nurses is important to complete the jigsaw of this complex essay. Lastly, to draw theory into practice by using the five steps of nursing process model (Christensen and Kenney, 1990, 1995 Roper, Logan Tierney, 1976 Pearson et al, 2005) will be explained by using the framework of the clinical Governance (surgical incision of Health (DH), 1999) as the benchmark for quality practice to explain the reason that it is a difficult responsibility for nurses to balance the contrary agendas.Hence, before an start out is made to answer the topic of this essay theory of nursing is explained and the definition of nursing is postulate for the reader to understand the direction that this topic will be taken. Theory provides a template for practice as it provides the em bodiment of nursing philosophies, presenting the beliefs, understandings, and purposes of nursing. It also guides research and education. A theory helps the understanding of nursing by the global public (Seedhouse, 1986). Theory is also a thinking process especially when a nurse is reflecting on the nursing process (assessment, diagnosis, planning, implementation and evaluation) of a patient (Bell Duffy, 2008). Peplau (1952) argued that nurses use therapeutic communication as a way to tease out information from the patients in order that nurses gain the patients trust and they are treat with respect and dignity. (, patients most of the time are seeing the nurse for the first time,) Orems (1971) used the self-care model where he stated that nurses used the continuous self-care action to care for patients when the patients self-care exceeds their own abilities to meet their of necessity (self-care dearth). Though Horan et al, (2004) Rogers (1970, 1980), Neuman (1980) and Parse (19 87) stated that nursing is both an art and science whereby the main aim is to help patient to get biological system homeostasis equilibrium after an illness and to sustain their health and wellbeing not forgetting their respect and dignity. RCN stated that the use of clinical judgement in the provision of care to enable people to improve, maintain, or recover health, to cope with health problems, and to achieve the best possible quality of life, whatever the ailment or disability, until death (RCN, 2003 pg 3).Respecting the dignity of patients and caring for their health and wellbeing.The World Health Organisation (WHO) stated that health is a human state of biopsychosocial wellbeing in the absence seizure of illness. Seedhouse (1995) argued that the WHO definition is too broad and difficult to achieve and it does not take into consideration the different definition of illness. Roper et al (2000) argued that health is an important mover in the model for nursing. Therefore, one of the roles of nursing is not only when caring for ill patients yet the healthy clients especially when doing health promotion. Furthermore, nurses have to care for patients attack from different cultural and ethnical background, gender, sexual orientation. Firstly, nurses must treat people as individuals and respect their dignity and must not discriminate in each way against the patients in their care. Patient must be treated kindly and considerately. Nurses should act as an advocate for those in their care by luck them to vex relevant health and social care information and to support them. Secondly, patients right to confidentiality is of paramount importance and is enshrined in the Data Protection Act (1989), furthermore, it is in the Human Right Act (1989).Ethics and its moral dilemma when caring for patients health and wellbeingEthics are standards of behaviour which nurses are expected to act on when caring for patients and others (Tschudin, 1986 Edwards, 1996 Holland et al, 2008 Kozier et al, 2008) whereas moral is ones personal standard of the difference between right and wrong in conduct, character and attitude. Ethics are found in the NMC enactment of conduct and nurses are accountable for their ethical conduct (Kozier, 2008). Ethics and moral are sometimes used interchangeably in some literatures. Beauchamp Childress (1989, 2009) developed a framework stated that there are four moral principles that nurses can work under. They are autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence and justice as explained below.Autonomy states that a patient is an individual and his/her wishes should be respected eventhough the decision runs contrary to our own ethical issues.Nonmaleficence the patient should not be placed do no harm it could come on intentionally, placing someone at harm risk or unintentionally causing harm.Beneficence doing good implement actions that benefit patient and their supports person.Justice fairness justifying one action against another action.(Nursing theorists may say when a nurse in faced with a dilemma the decision should be based on dickens ethical models utilitarianism one that brings the most good and the least harm for the greatest number of people or deontological theory action is not judged on its consequences but is judged on whether it agrees with moral principles)Ethics can sometimes provide moral dilemmas that nurses face when caring for a patient especially if the patient has been diagnosed with an incurable disease whereby the family and their employer do not want it to be disclosed to the patient. In such circumstances the conflict it between ethics and moral dilemma that is enshrined in the NMC (2008) Code of Ethics their role as nurses and moral duty to the patient who wants to know the truth and the patients health and wellbeing (Benjamin Curtis, 1992 Edwards, 1996). Thompson et al (2006) stated that ethics and moral cannot work in a vacuum further added that in order to justify moral judg ement nurses need prior knowledge of ethical theory. Beauchamp and Childress (2009) added that one needs understanding of moral theory to be able to justify ethical decisions. This demonstrates the extra burden imposed on nurses thereby finding themselves constrained by the difficult responsibilities placed on them to fulfil the NMC (2008) Code of Ethics furthermore those of their employers.(Nurses must have professional accountability and responsibility regardless of how simple or difficult the task may, they are personally accountable for their practice and are answerable for any action and omission committed whilst discharging their role. In this case responsibility refers to the accountability or liability associated with the duties undertaken by nurses).ConclusionDefinition of important wordsBefore the essay tapestry is weaved some words definition are given to set the tone whether the NMC (2008) guidance appears simple and/or is it difficult responsibility to fulfil in nursing practice.The Essence of Care (DH, 2003) is an NHS Policy helping health practitioners to take a patient-focused and structured approach to sharing and comparing practice.Trust Bell Duffy suggested that being trustworthy is difficult as patients, peers, managers have different expectations on the definition of trust (2009). Trust is therefore defined as .Wilson argued that public has lost trust in nursing care due to the fact that they expect modern medicine could cure every possible ill and secondly someone has failed to deliver the service they were mandated to deliver (2002).Health and wellbeing health is defined as the absence of illness with complete physical, mental and social wellbeing (World Health Organisation (WHO), 1946 Seedhouse, 1986) and wellbeing being the (suggested) state of perfection (Wilmot, 2003) dignity is defined as the way an individual perceives and acquires values (privacy, respect and trust), sets standards according to these values and from these stan dards judges what is acceptable influenced by the individual cultural upbringing (Haddock, 1996 Seedhouse, 2000 DH, 2000 Matiti, 2002 DH, 2004 Matiti et al, 2007). customer/patientAdvocacy Griffith Tengnah (2008) stated that NMC codes places both a normative and confirmative rules on the registrant (Normative rule what a person should do or what they should refrain from doing and positive rule imposes a legal obligation to do or refrain from doing something). Therefore, the NMC codes pull on both the normative and positive rule to underpin a shared set of values as enshrined by the regulatory body.Apply the concept of dignity in delivering care by respecting the patient as an individualThe concept of dignity A concept is a label given to an observed phenomenon In the policy documents NHS Plan (Department of Health (DH), 2000) and Standards for Better Health (DH, 2004) DH states that patients would be treated as an individual first and treated with respect and dignity by focusing on their whole health and wellbeing not only their illness. It further added that the nurses would also be treated with respect and dignity. These words are echoed in the NMC (2008) Code though it does not mention the registrant.Apply the concept of dignityDeliver care with dignityIdentifying factors that influence and maintain patient dignityChallenges situation/others when patient dignity may be compromisedQuality of care and clinical governance cycleConclusionTo the author who is a novice (Benner, 1984) the NMC guidance may appear to be a difficult responsibility to fulfil in practice but to an expert nurse the process and analysis of data happens on an unconscious level. This is done as the nurse may be able to deconstruct an incident by summoning his cognitive intuition (knowledge, experience) therefore the clinical decisions appears in his/her conscious mind readily formed (Lyneham et al. 2008 2009).So it apt to conclude that regimes of care should actually benefit clients, rather than simply not cause harm.Beauchamp T L, Childress J F. (1989) Principles of biomedical ethics. 3rd ed. Oxford Oxford University Press.Beauchamp T L, Childress J F. (2009) Principles of biomedical ethics. 6th ed. Oxford Oxford University Press.Benjamin M, Curtis J. (1992) Ethics in Nursing. 3rd Ed. Oxford Oxford University PressBenner P. (1984) From novice to expert Excellence and power in clinical nursing practice. California Addison Wesley.Department of Health. (2000) The NHS plan A plan for investment, a plan for reform. London The Stationery Office.Edwards S D. (1996) Nursing Ethics A principle-based approach. Basingstoke Macmillan Press Ltd.Griffith R, Tengnah C. (2008) Law and professional issues in nursing. Exeter Learning Matters Ltd.Hinchliff S, Norman S, Schober J. (eds.) (2008) Nursing practice and health care A foundation text. 5th Ed. London Hodder Arnold.Holland K, Jenkins J, Solomon J, Whittam S (eds.) (2008) Roper, Logan Tierney Model in Practice. 2nd Ed. Ed inburgh Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.Horan P, Doran A, Timmina F. (2004) Exploring Orems self-care deficit nursing theory in learning disability nursing Philosophical parity paper. Learning Disability Practice. 7 (4) 28-37.Kozier B, Erb G, Berman A, Synder S, Lake R, Harvey S. (2008) Fundamentals of Nursing Concept, process and practice. Harlow Pearson reading Ltd.Lyneham J, Parkinson C, Denholm C. (2008) Explicating Benners concept of expert practice intuition in emergency nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 64 (4) 380-387.Lyneham J, Parkinson C, Denholm C. (2009) Expert nursing practice a mathematical rendering of Benners 5th stage of practice development. Journal of Advance Nursing. 65 (11) 2477-2484.Nursing Midwifery Council (NMC). (2002) Code of professional conduct. London NMCNursing Midwifery Council. (2008) The Code Standards of conduct, functioning and ethics for nurses and midwives. London NMC.Royal College of Nursing (1981) Accountability in nursing. London RCN.S eedhouse D. (1986) Health The foundations for achievement. London Wiley.Seedhouse D. (2000) Practical nursing philosophy The universal ethical code. stark naked York Riley.Semple M, Cable S. (2003) The new code of professional conduct. Nursing Standard. 17 (23) 40-48.Thompson I E, Melia K M, Boyd K M, Horsburgh D. (2006) Nursing Ethics. 5th Ed. Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.WaightsWilmot S. (2003) Ethics, power and policy The emerging of nursing in the NHS. New York Palgrave Macmillan.Wilson R. (2002) Where did peoples trust go? Nursing Standard. 17 (2) 24-25.

Condominium Living in Malaysia

Condominium Living in MalaysiaThe plan of condo living in Malaysia is already promoted for few years before and al nearly al unitedly the people in the urban center exit accept this type of housing. Due to the rapid rate of urbanisation and scarce of farming available, condo become the most popular housing types which lead to maximise the usage of land available with providing the facilities.Condominium living has become much usualality in a bluster of the residential landscape in m some(prenominal) instigates of the country, especially in densely popu latishd atomic number 18as such(prenominal)(prenominal) as Kuala Lumpur and Penang. This is mainly cause by the scarcity of land in big cities and rapid urbanisation due to massive population migration. Other than population migration, the needs of people and changing lifestyle affirm overly contri buted to the phylogenesis of the gritty-rise construct over the country. Limited land has driven up the prices of verac iousties, especially the place such as those in the Kuala Lumpur city centre and the fast developing corridors in the Klang Valleys (The Star, 2004).Since Malaysia is now promoting a policy, housing-owning democracy with a target which every family pull up stakes own a house. With this policy, there is an probability to let the people choose what multifariousness of housing is worryly to be bought. Condominium living can open up an opport unit of measurementy to strengthen the descent between three major ethnic for racial integration. It is to help the political and economic stability in the country. All the residents will sh ar their responsibility and salute their effort over the common argonas and facilities such as corridor or the recreational facilities within the condo.There are many reasons why people make their sign of the zodiacs in condominiums. close to is because their children create grown up and moved out, and their homes are now too large. Others consider it because it is cheaper to buy a unit in a condo rather than a landed property in the location they want (National House Buyers Association, 2009). Living within the condominium where neighbours can be easily impose upon when problems arise will increase the mutual understanding between the neighbours.Condominium living is about lifestyle and buying a condominium is actually put in a lifestyle (Chan, C. K., 1991). Some rich people will buy the condominium just because of the facilities it is provided. They can just rent the condominium in term of it location or equipped by good facilities such as 24-hour security, swimming pools and barbecue pits.From this chapter, we will understand concept of condominium using, rendering of condominium, the types of condominium, basic instrument for purchasing condominium, the units, common areas, Strata act bit (1985) and building and Common Property ( sustenance and Management) do work 2007 (Act 663).The Concept of Condominium Development Condominium essence to control (dominion) a certain property jointly with (con) one or more persons (Chan, C. K., 1991). This housing development is a form of co-proprietorship over a multiple-unit property, for obiter dictum flat. The co- will major power will own a unit and hand over their own interest in the air space and an undivided interest in the common area, such as corridor, lobbies, playground, garden, swimming pools and car park.Condominium development is to be introduced and solved the problem because of the rapid urbanisation and trammel of land available. Due to these problems, condominium is more popular in the crowded city such as Kuala Lumpur. Desa Kudalan project was the number 1 project launched in Kuala Lumpur which was located in the up-market area of Jalan Pekeliling (Chan, C. K., 1991).Demand of condominium is rise in crowded cities and there will be some of the factors that contributed to the drive such as scarcity of land and high land cost. Because limited land available in cities, it driven up the land price goes up. Condominium developments help the citizen to have their own house which in the multiple-unit property, condominium where each(prenominal) individualist has their own interest known as unit. As the population rise, some cities are facing shortage of housing. Multiple-unit property will help the citizen to have their own house which fulfilled the housing democracy which now promoting by the government where every citizen owns their house. People nowadays are more educated and they will meet and satisfy their need to fulfil the life they want to be. Changing lifestyle is one of the factors for the contribution of condominium development. There are many facilities provided by living in condominium such as24-hour security and swimming pool.The types of condominium development are contrastive in the form of low rise and high rise, integrated linked type, cluster of repetitive nature, in varying community density, in more central urban region and the suburban as fountainhead as areas of resort, in varying cost values but in all cases, the concept of mutual benefitting community living remains the basic (Sze To, K. Y., 1979).The concept of condominium development is consider quite success in the crowded city compare to rural area. This has helped to create a market for condominium housing and citizens have more choice to choose according to their favourite.Definition of CondominiumCon-dominium is derive from two word which mean joint sovereignty or in the more historical sense joint control of a State by separate(a) States. In housing development, it is referred to subsidiary title coupled with common title or as defined under the National Land Code in previous days (Sze To, K. Y., 1979).The word condo or condominium comes from the two Latin words- con pith together and dominium, means property. A condominium can be an flatbed, house, townhouse or a unit in an a billetment house in which the units are individually own. Hence, there is always common property owned with others- recreation areas, lawns, basement, garage as well as the individual units are owned outright ( Kalia, A., 2007).Others than that, condominium is the home ownership that owned by the individual units, which is known as condominium units. Undivided interest means a share or right that owned by the unit holder, but the ratio or the share can non be defined apart from the completely (Holeman, J. R., 1980). Each unit owner has the identical interest which is called shared rights towards the common areas that used together, for instance swimming pool, car park, barbecue pits, elevator and others. Management of the condominium is responsibility to well manage the common area in order to provide a harmonies environment within the condominium. An marrow of money, which is management stipend, will be stipendiary by the unit owners every month in order the property management are sufficient money to man age the common areas. Normally, home owners will form an association, to maintain and manage the common areas.There are various types of design unit within a condominium, such as studio unit, penthouse and duplex. Penthouse and duplex are expensive condominium living and normally rich people will bargain for this kind of condominium to match their luxury lifestyle.studio apartment unit is consists of dining, living and bedroom that combined together to become a large room. The kitchen facilities as a part of the central room. Bathroom in this unit has its own smaller partition.Penthouse which high classification in the condominium is located at the top of the building. It is separate from with others building to have privacy by alone(predicate) design such as high ceiling.Duplex consist of two floors connected by internal staircase in condominium.Types of CondominiumThere are several type of condominium such as residential condominium, non-residential condominium, standard condom inium and manikin condominium.Residential condominium is owned by the individual units which the owner will occupy for living aspire. Some of the owner will rent out to others to earn the rental income. They will pay monthly caution fee to management department of condominium for maintaining and managing the common area that all the owners have the shared right on it.There is also non-residential condominium can be found in the property market such as hotel, services apartment, retail shop and office building. The structure is the same with the residential condominium but the difference is the usage of the building.Standard condominium is just a common type of condominium that can be found in any country. This kind of condominium is subdivided into units and common area. Hence, this kind of owner will own different but inseparable entities. One is the well defined space that used for residential purpose one is the common area which the owner have shared interest on it. This shar ed interest between the owners can non be defined from the wholly part.Phased condominium is a condominium developed according to stages. Normally, the time to complete the development will not exceed 10 years. Hence, the condominium development sizing will increase from time to time until the development is complete. The advantage of this type of condominium is the purchasers do not have to wait for so long for the development to complete. There is also a benefit for the developer which the income does not influence by the period to occupy or awaiting title. This type of condominium will use phase one to be the name that ideal first. The owners is also own different but inseparable entities.Basic Instrument for Purchasing CondominiumBefore the condominium can be purchased, there are three instruments used in order to purchase condominium, deed of Mutual Covenant, declaration of condominium and bylaw of condominium association. rubric of Mutual CovenantWhen a person purchases a pr operty where there are common areas that need all the involvement of all the unit owners, the owner will asked to enter into a Deed of Mutual Covenant (DMC) while the Sale and Purchase Agreement (SPA) is signed upon. Deed of Mutual Covenant is an pact of mutual involved between the developer and the purchaser. The contents different from developer to developer, and they are distinctly separate from those in the SPA (National House Buyers Association, 2004). Housing Development Act does not regulate the contents in DMC compare to Sale and Purchase Agreement. The contents consist of the clauses which assure the purchaser and the developer. There are some clauses are as followsMaintenance Charges.The nutriment charges are the agreed amount that valid for a period. After the period, the agreed amount will be increased to a sensible amount.Undertaking Not To Lodge A caveat.DMC lop the purchaser or owner to lodge any caveat on the property.Right of the developer to cease put out of u tilities.Developer has the right to cut the utilities such as electricity and water supply, in case of any default or delay payment by the resident.admit fees.National House Buyers Association (20041) state.The amendment to the Housing Regulations, effective Dec 1, 2002, developers can only charge a sum of 0.5% of the purchase price or RM500, whichever is lower. This is regardless of when the SPA was signed. The amended Housing Regulations also states that No housing developer shall collect any fee by whatever name called for giving his consent to any purchaser or subsequent purchaser of a housing accommodation to assign his rights and benefits to and in the contract of sale to any pecuniary institution providing a loan for such purchaser to finance or part finance the purchase of the housing accommodation Period of validity of the DMC.The validity period of DMC is the strata titles have been issued to the each unit owners and the management confederation is formed.There are ma ny dispute causes by the clauses between developers and buyers. The maintenance charges will be increase to a reasonable amount after certain period. Some buyers do not check during signing the DMC or do not understand what is the reasonable amount will be stated. The disputes begin with developers after certain period when buyers realise they have to pay more for maintenance charges. Although the buyer is owned the property, he is no right to enter any caveat to his own property to check his rights. Government should solve the dispute between developers and buyers by standardize contents of DMC like Sale and Purchase Agreement to ensure the equilibrium balance between developers and buyers.Declaration of CondominiumThe declaration of condominium (also known as the declaration of restrictions or master deed) establishes the definition of the private and common elements within the condominium community, and outlines the rights and obligations of the owners. It is actually a legal in strument recorded that create a condominium development under law. This declaration of condominium will set up a monetary fund to maintain the property, and creates the condominium association. Instructions for how amendments are to be when the change of conditions of demand should be given by the declaration of condominium. For instance, the developer has to prepare a declaration of condominium to fully state the ownership rights of the owners according to their units (Holeman, J. R., 1980).Articles of IncorporationConstitution condominium community is a set of rule and command which same as the articles of incorporation and declaration of condominium. The articles of incorporation will constitute the rule and regulation for the purpose of condominium and it will be stated there whether it is for investment purpose or just for resident occupation. The condominium will operate according to the rules and regulation when the article of incorporation is legally bound while condominiu m by-law will establish the guidelines of condominium. Membership requirements, election procedures, and the powers and duties of the directors and officers are regulated by by-law. They determine how the cash in hand are to be handled, and how the project is to be maintained, insured, and restricted. By-law will continuous change and amend to meet the suitable condition (Holeman, J. R., 1980).Bylaw of Condominium AssociationBy-law should be abided by the condominium unit owners. Developers or the purchaser of the units are generally draft the rules and regulation of condominium in by-law of condominium. Normally, by-law will establish the electing officers or board members procedures of the condominium association, inform the member when the meeting is being held, and also responsible for the building maintenance and insurance in common areas. Some of the restrictions may impose to restrict unit holders to do something against the rule and regulation or penalties for not complianc e to the rules (Answer potty, 2009).Rules and RegulationRules and regulations are required by managing the condominium as the by-law gives the rules for living together with harmonies. These rules and regulations will determine and enforce by the board of Director. Some of the rules and regulations are stated as belowHomeowners Dues.The monthly homeowners due must be paid according to the period that has been determined. Condominium may take some action towards homeowners who are refused to pay it.Common Elements.The homeowner or residents are not allowed to devising loud noise which will disturb other residents within the period that has been determined. The balconies must be neat and clean in appearance. No any close up items or store room are allowed to be place at common area.Parking.Vehicles have to be parked in the designated lay spaces. Vehicles are not allowed to park their vehicle at the prohibited area such as in front of garage.Pets.Some of the condominium may allow t he residents to have their pets. Some condominium will not. If allowed, it must consistent with the responsibilities associated with living in a condominium.The UnitUnit is the description which usually contained in the declaration of condominium. The most crucial element is boundary described, because homeowners are responsible to maintain, manage, insure and decorate their own unit. Each unit owner shall be entitled to exclusive self-discipline of his apartment, take to the provisions of the condominium documents (Holeman, J. R., 1980).Common AreasThe documents refer to common area shared by condominium owners as that part of the projects exclusive of all private units. The ownership of each condominium unit includes an undivided interest in, as well as rights and title to these common areas (Holeman, J. R., 1980).The common areas are divided into two general common interest and limited common elements. Generally, common areas include the land, main walls, foundations, roofs, h allways, elevators, swimming pools and other recreational areas and parking lots. Detached carports and garages are sometimes owned by the association and assigned to individual unit owners, and sometimes they are owned with the unit (King, B., 2003).Limited common elements are a physical part of the common areas, but are for the exclusive use of a particular unit owner or group of owners. Limited areas usually refer to parking spaces, patio space, Storage space, and entrances ways (Holeman, J. R., 1980). Neighbourhood Link (20091) explained. Limited common elements could also be any air conditioning or heating units, chute, flue, duct, wire, conduit, thrill wall, bearing column and other fixture, whether located within or outside of the boundaries of a unit, which serve only that unit or are allocated solely to that unit. either shutters, awnings, window boxes, doorsteps, stoops, porches, decks, balconies, entryways, patios, exterior doors and windows, other fixtures designed to serve a single unit, but located outside the Units boundaries are limited common elements allocated exclusively to that unit.Strata backup Act (1985)The interest of unit holders and developers are subjected in sub-division of building for subsidiary titles (Strata Titles). This legally abided title has contributed a more effective implementation when some of the disputes are arise (Kok, S. T., 1979).The Federal and Director Generals Land and Mines Department (20091) explained that strata Title was first introduced in 1966 by the Malaysian National Land Code 1965, to better have intercourse with the legal ownership of multi-storey buildings. Previously, it was known as subsidiary titles by reference to the buildings erected on alienated land. By 2007 strata title legislative amendment, the strata titles concept was extended to be applied for land parcels created on alienated land.DefinitionStrata title is a form of ownership for multi-storey buildings or blocks or multi layer of la nd on a piece of alienated land. The Strata part term refers to subdivided units being on different levels (The Federal and Director Generals Land and Mines Department, 2009).Management Corporation is formed under Strata Title Schemes where combination the individual parcels and common property with a self-governance of Strata Corporation. The individual parcel is indicating condominium, apartment, town house, and each of the individual units will be hold a different title. Management Corporation is formed automatically when the strata title is registered by opening of a Book of Strata Register (The Federal and Director Generals Land and Mines Department, 2009).The Management Corporation has to elect a council who responsible to perform the MCs duties and powers and carry out the MCs business. The council is consisting of not less than three and not more than fourteen proprietors of multi-storey building. Under component 41 of Strata Title Act 1985, the first Annual General Meeting (AGM) must be conducted within one month after expiration of the initial period. sign Period is the period commence from the day of the MC is formed and the end on the day on which there are at to the lowest degree one- bum of aggregate share units, not including the proprietor of the lot who known as original proprietor of Master Title (Tan, R., 2007).By-LawsBy-laws under the Third memorial of Strata Titles Act, 1985 are applicable to all subdivided buildings. Additional by-laws and continuous amendment can be made by management corporation so that by-laws does not contracting with the Third Schedule of the Strata Titles Act, 1985. All owners in Management Corporation must comply the additional by-laws as long as the law is applicable. And the additional by-law shall be publishing in the public for their awareness. Records of all such by-laws must be properly kept by Management Corporation for inspection (National House Buyers Association, 2009).Requirement of Subdivision of expressionHomeowner will be given a separate title which is sub-divided any building into each individual title of the proprietor of the land with blessing of The Federal and Director Generals Land and Mines Department. Any building which intends to sub-divide to an individual title has to be subject to some of the conditions as followThe land is only held as one lot under registry title.Building must have 2 or more storeys above the ground level, with an area at least 5,000 square feet.The building must approved and certified by a Licensed Surveyor. The boundary of the lot with will be examined carefully by him.The sub-division does not contravene any restriction in interest in the land or any requirement that has been gazetted in title.The building has to be constructed in compliance with the plan submitted where the planning permission was required by for the building and it should certified by Architect(register under the Architect Ordinance 1951).here is no item of land reven ue is outstanding in the respected land.Formation of Management CorporationMC is the medium through which the proprietors control and manage the strata scheme pursuant to the Strata Titles Act 1985 and the Rules made there under. If it is a subdivided building or multi-storey building, it is automatically register under strata title. The MC is known by the name appearing in the disk of the strata register relating to the subdivided building (National House Buyers Association, 2009). It is a body corporate having perpetual succession and a common seal. It is not necessary to register it under the Societies Act 1966 or any other law. In the case of a subdivided low-cost building, however, the MC does not come into existence automatically with the opening of the strata register. Under section 64 of the Strata Titles Act 1985, the MC comes into existence upon the completion of the transfer of strata title in respect of all the parcels by the original proprietor. On the other hand, the proprietors, other than the original proprietor, having share units totalling more than half of the aggregate share units of all the parcels may apply o the Director of Lands and Mines for an order to establish the management corporation as provided for under section 64A.Duties, Powers and Responsibilities of the Management CorporationNormally, the duties, powers and responsibilities of MC are under section 43 of the Strata Title Act, 1985. National House Buyers Association (2009) stated that the MC should exercise their duties, powers and responsibility according as belowTo collect the contributions from parcel proprietors.To purchase the personal chattel property for the use as common property.To secure the repayment and the payment interest.To do all things necessary for the performance of its duties.To manage and maintain the common property.To insure and keep insured the subdivided building against fire and other risks.To pay insurance premiums, quit rent and other rates.To co mply with any notices or orders given by an public authorities to execute any plant in respect of the reasonable time.To prepare and maintain a strata roll for the subdivided building.To be the custodian of the issue of the document of title of the relevant land.Tot purchase additional land, grant or accept an easement.To provide an appropriate receptacle for postal deliveries.Financial ManagementManagement Corporation has to establish a management fund in order to manage and maintain, control the common properties, paying taxes, rates and insurance. Some acquisition and investment activities may also allowed for MC to proceed. MC will decide the amount of homeowner to levy the contribution according to their respective share unit and the interest rate whoever homeowner is in respect of late payment of contribution for maintain the management find accounts. A portion of money from the management fund account are distributed for painting the building, purchasing movable property for the purpose of common property, replacement of fixture and fitting in common property and others expenditure for maintenance.Building and Common Property (Maintenance and Management) Act 2007 (Act 663)Building and Common Property (Maintenance and Management) Act 2007 (Act 663) was first came to enforce on 12 April 2007. It is an Act to provide for the proper maintenance and, management of buildings and common property, and for matters incidental to it (Lee, S. S., 2007). There are some problems during the duration after vacant possession is delivered by developer to purchaser and before the establishment of the Management Corporation. Hence, this present law is to dressing what is inadequate in addressing the problems during that period. The developer is responsible for the maintenance and management of the common property before the formation of the Management Corporation (Lee, S. S., 2007). The maintenance and management of building and common property under the Building and Co mmon Property Act 2007 covers all types of building that will be or have been subdivided and issued with strata titles namely residential buildings such as condominiums flats, apartments and gated community developments, commercial buildings such as office blocks, shopping complexes, service apartments, mixed developments and industrial buildings. In respect of building with strata titles, it includes all parcels, coadjutor parcels and common property (Maidin, A. J., 2007).According to the section 4 of the Building and Common Property (Maintenance and Management) Act 2007 (Act 663), a go Management Body is formed which make up the developer and purchasers to administer the maintenance and management of the building during the initial period before the Management Corporation fully takes control of the common property of the development from the developer (Soong, D., 2007). articulate Management BodyThe first meeting of the Body has to be convoked by developers no later than 12 mon ths from the commencement of the act for the building concerned was completed before the commencement of the Act. In cases where the building is completed on or after the commencement of the Act, the meeting must be held no later than 12 months from the oral communication of vacant possession to the purchasers. Unlike the Management Corporation, the developers duty to convene the first meeting of the Body is effectively tied to the delivery of vacant possession to the purchasers and not effected by how long it takes the developer to apply for and procure the opening of the strata register for the development or whether the developer has sold and transferred 25% of the development to purchasers (Soong, D., 2007).Formation of Joint Management BodyBefore the JMB is established, the developer has responsibility to carry out the maintenance works and to ensure the building is free others risks. Developer has the duty to have a first meeting with all the purchasers within specified perio d. If developer fails to do so, the developer will be fined not more than RM25, 000 or imprisonment in a period not more than three months or both.Duties of Joint Management BodyJoint Management Body is a body corporate, hence there are swot up to be sued if anything found in default. The duties of the JMB are, among others, toMaintain the common property and keep it in good serviceable repair.Fix and impose charges for the maintenance works.Insure the building and apply insurance moneys received for rebuilding and reinstatement.Prepare and maintain a register of all purchasers.Ensure that the Building Maintenance Fund (BMF) is audited and provide financial statements to purchasers.Enforce house rules (Wong, A. F. H., 2009).Powers of Joint Management BodyJoint Management Bodys powers under Building and Common Property (Maintenance and Management) Act 2007 (Act 663) are almost the same with those of the Management Corporation under Strata Titles Act. The Body is essentially a form o f Pre-management Corporation (Soong, D., 2007). In essence, the Body is required to perform all acts required for the proper maintenance and management of the building, such as maintaining audited accounts and enforcing house rules for the proper maintenance and management of the building. The JMB is empowered toi.Collect maintenance charges from purchasers.ii.Authorise expenditure for carrying out the maintenance works.iii.Recover monies due from purchasers.iv.Acquire property for use by purchasers in connection with the common property.v.Secure the services of a person to undertake the maintenance works.vi.Make house rules (Wong, A. F. H., 2009).Building Maintenance AccountFinancial statements which include the maintenance and management of the development are specified by the Act has to be maintained by developer and the Body before the account is being passed to the Management Corporation. Ensuring funds to be audited which held for the maintenance of the development and provide the audited financial statements for the information to purchasers is part of the duty of the Body (Soong, D., 2007).In each development, developer is required to open a Building Maintenance Account before vacant possession is delivering to homeowner. Other than that, developer also required to deposit all the money received for the purpose of Building Maintenance Account which the money does not go directly to developer. Building Maintenance Account must to be audited by a public and professional auditor, and the auditors report must be attach and report to Commissioner within 14 days. Commissioner has the power to engage their own auditor to investigate the entire document related, such as account of the developers company.Under Part IV Section 16, before delivery of vacant possession, the developer of a strata development must open a Building Maintenance Account (BMA) in the name of the strata development for each development. This applies to all impudently completed strata dev elopment where the vacant possession has not been delivered to the purchasers as of 12th April, 2007. For developments where vacant possession has been given but the management corpora

Bilingualism is a controversial issue

Bilingualism is a controversial issueHowever, be multilingualism and bilingualistists is more than difficult than what the people think. This is over referable to bilingualisms flat aspects as been stated by many linguists, gentilityalists, and psycholinguists. For example, Hofmann (1991), mentions that the multi-faceted phenomenon of bilingualism is the about remarkable and satisfying feature which is expected to centre the point of difficulty when defining bilingualism from ace dimension. Moreover, Hamers Blanc (2000, pp. 3 23) provide a similar point of view and they highlight multidimensionality as creation superstar weakness of bilingualism beca riding habit when defining it, only hotshot dimension would be interpreted into account, ignoring separate sides of bilingualism. They add a number of various definitions of bilingualism which be one sided as they believe. For example, a definition of bilingualism may meet competence, without the other meaning(a) dim ensions. baker Jones (1998) catch more specific in explaining the multidimensionality of bilingualism and they assert that there are five main issues that convey the difficulty of defining bilingualism very concisely. Also, they show that there index be degrees of bilingualism which vary in the same mortal over time. The five issues are as the followingThere is distinction in the midst of ability in quarrel and use of wording. They are 2 separate things. For example, a bilingual person has the ability to say two wrangles very fluently, just he or she uses and practices only one of the two speech communications regardless whether it is the native spoken actors line or the south wording. any(prenominal) other bilingual person has the ability to speak two languages notwithstanding he or she has most problems in speaking one of the two languages regardless whether it is the native language or the second language, hardly this person uses and practices both languages regularly. This distinction ignore be referred to the degree of difference between proficiency or competence of language (ability) and function of that language (use). improvement may vary in a language. For example, the abilities of a bilingual person get out vary in using a language among the four skills of that language (listening, reading, speaking, and create verbally), where that person might be very good in speaking A language but when it comes to writing, the person will use B language to write or read, because his or her ability of writing in A language is weak or low. Another bilingual person might convey good abilities (proficiency) in speaking and writing of a language, but he or she cannot use and practice (speak or write) that language, so he or she tends to use some other language. This is called receptive competence.Few bilingual people are fittedly respectable in both languages, but one language tends to be stronger and make split developed than the other language. It is called the dominant language and it is not necessarily to be the first or native language.Few bilinguals possess the same competence as monolinguals in either of their languages. This is because bilingual individuals utilize the languages they acquired for dissimilar functions and purposes.A bilinguals competence in a language may vary over time and harmonize to changing circumstances. For example, a child starts to translate a minor language at class or in the childhood. As time goes, he or she learns another language in the groom or community and he or she will gradually lose the minor language, because it is out of use and that person became away from the childhood the situation where the minor language is employ (bread maker Jones 1998).Mackey (1967) supports Bakers Jones issues in a different way that there are four aspects should be taken into account when defining and describing bilingualism. They are overlapped to each other and cannot be treated sepa rately. These aspects are degree, function, alteration, and interference. The degree of bilingualism indicates the proficiency and competence of language, which is the extent to which the bilingual knows each of the languages. The partly of function focuses on the use and practice a bilingual has for the languages. How much each language is used and practiced by the bilingual? Alteration concentrates on the extent to which the bilingual switches between the languages (code switching). And interference is the degree to which a bilingual manages to keep the two languages separate or fused. Mackey adds that the four questions are overlapped to each other and they cannot be treated separately. For example, a bilinguals knowledge of a language will to some extent specify the functions to which it is put and the vice versa. The contexts in which bilinguals stir the prospect to use language will affect their competence in it Adding to the previous points, Romaine (1995), states that pro ficiency and function are the fixingss which are related to the definition and translation of bilingualism.Bilingualism should be care practicedy viewed with great consideration to certain variables appearing in the coming definitions. Auer (1995) shows that bilingualism can be referred to the linguistic competences in more than one language. This bilingual competence can be accessible via the analysis of well-formed sentences involving two languages which may be treated as a window on the bilingual mind (Auer, 1995, p.115). Clearly, psycholinguists deem bilingualism as hidden competence in bilinguals minds, and it can be revealed as bilinguals produce utterances. Conversely, Saunders (1988) declares that bilingualism has different associations in peoples minds.In the issue of the definition of bilingualism, two distinctive sides view appeared which have been opposing each other in the way of defining bilinguals and bilingualism. The debate is centred about two definitions. In on e side, there are some people who assume that bilingualism is being estimable in speaking two languages just like the native speakers. This is related to Leonard Bloomfield the most famous linguist on the first side of the issue. check to Hofmann (1991), Bloomfield pays special attention to users who beseem so proficient in the immature language that they cannot be distinguished from the native speakers and he considers these users are bilinguals. He relates bilingualism to those individuals who speak a second language with high native level of proficiency. In 1933, Bloomfield published a book called Language which was an early book of modern linguistics and it defines bilingualism as In the extreme case of alien language learn, the speaker becomes so proficient as to be indistinguishable from the native speakers round him. In this case where this perfect foreign language acquire is not accompanied by deviation of the native language, it results in bilingualism, (the) native -like control of two languages (Bloomfield, 1933, p.55-56).As a consequence of Bloomfields definition, Hoffmann (1991) raises some questions, where he believes that Bloomfield has a clear idea of bilingualism, but there is some inconsistency on his definition of bilingualism. For example, if there is no definition for a degree of perfection in bilingualism, so how could Bloomfield talk of perfect foreign language learning? Continuing with Romaine (1995), who says that the previous definition identifies native like control of two languages as being the norm for bilingualism. Moreover, Hamers Blanc (2000) add that Bloomfield concentrates on the one dimension which is proficiency in language and this is not satisfying, because it is one of the weaknesses in defining bilingualism. As a consequence of Bloomfields definition, Also, Saunders (1988) stresses that this definition is restrictively limited to bilingual individuals who master their two languages completely.The previous views t owards Bloomfields definition show the reasons of having another side of defining the bourne bilingualism. Moving to the other most different side of defining and describing bilingualism, bilinguals who have no native speakers competence in both languages reject that definition utterly and a number of definitions opposing Bloomfields notion have been de shapeined by many linguists. For example, Saunders (1988) argues that many bilinguals comprehend a foreign language without having the ability to speak it fluently. Therefore, linguists define bilingualism as the bilinguals capability of using and speaking two distinctive languages at any level of competency. After all these various arguments regarding bilingualisms nature, it is clear that bilingual individuals have different degrees of competence in the second language. Also, comes in the other side, Haugen (1953, p.7) who shows that if an individual of any language could produce complete meaningful sentences in any other languag e, he or she would be a bilingual. champion more definition contradicting Bloomfields is Macnamaras definition. Macnamara (1967a) cited in Hamers Blanc (2000, p.6) who defines a bilingual as anyone who possesses a minimal competence in only one of the four skills, listening comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing in a language other than his cause spitting.There is a array of other definitions of bilingualism between the above most two distinctive sides of definitions. That collection appeared to align for either side. For example, Hamers Blanc (2000, p.6-7) note that Titone (1972) defines bilingualism as the individuals capacity to speak a second language while following the concepts and structures of that language rather than paraphrasing his or her mother tongue.All the previous distinguishing definitions show the degree of difficulty in providing a concise definition of a bilingual and bilingualism, because most of the definitions are seen to be abstracted specifity and clarity in the main points on them like native-like competence, minimal proficiency in a second language, and following the concept of structures of the second language (Hamers Blanc, 2000, p.6-7).In the case of bilingualism at HCT, Macnamaras definition of bilingualism seems to be the most appropriate one to the installation year students capability of face and this is due to their level of incline which is not as much as Bloomfields notion of native like control of two languages.2.2 Types of bilingualsBilinguals in the area have been categorised into groups depending on certain points. The Finnish linguist Skutnabb-Kangas (1981) discusses this part of the issue of bilingualism and she proposes that bilinguals in the world can be classified into four different groups and there are some promoters should be taken into account to distinguish between these groups. The factors are the pressure to become bilingual, the prerequisites for bilingualism, the method used to come th rough bilingualism, and the consequences in the case of failure. Skutnabb-Kangas focuses mainly on children bilinguals in her classification, but this classification to some extent might apply on bilinguals other than children. She classifies the groups as the followingElite bilinguals this group consists of people who have chosen to learn another language and become bilingual and in most cases they are not forced to bilingualism. Most of the bilinguals in this group are upper and midst class people. For example, some of them become bilinguals for the sake of studying or working abroad such as wining scholarships or having business, while others move and change their soil of residence, so they want to learn the language of the target country. Regarding the factor of pressure, elite bilinguals volunteer to learn a second language and there is mostly no pressure, unless the children from the families who move to other countries might feel the pressure since they have to learn the la nguage of the new country. In this group, the bilinguals prerequisites are seen to be most often fitted for them, because this is their choice of being bilinguals. In the case of children, the parents make their children acquire the mother tongue very well, so they will not lose it when learning another language. When they live abroad, the children then will be encouraged to learn a second language which is expected to be used most often, however they will still use the mother tongue at least within the home environment. The method of achieving bilingualism for elite bilinguals is a combination of the natural method and didactics as Skutnabb-Kangas states, where children or other bilinguals will face situations in which they must speak and communicate in the foreign language. Besides, they will be taught the foreign language in their home country as well as in the target country. In the case of failure for elite bilinguals, there are no serious consequences when not making a posi tive progress in learning a second language. For example, children or bilinguals might have less get through with native speakers and in some cases they will accompany speakers of their own mother tongue.Children from linguistic majorities this group consists mainly of children who learn a language at school other than their mother tongue and this language is more likely to be a nonage language, where children or bilinguals from such groups will learn it for certain reasons. This minority language is used either for the enhancement of its prestige, Hoffmann (1991) provides an example of learning French in Canada. Skutnabb-Kangas (1981) continues that a language might be regarded as being super beneficial in the field of gentility and too in getting good occupations in a country, so this language will be used in immersion programmes or in foreign language classes, Hoffmann (1991) mentions the case of using slope as a foreign language in Netherlands as an example for the second r eason (Hoffmann, 1991). Another example for the later reason could be the situation of teaching English in almost all the educational institutions in Oman and using it widely in most of the occupations in the various fields of work. There is little or no pressure on the children or other people of this group to learn a second language. The family and the society might be a source of pressure for the children the parents will motivate their children to become bilinguals for either of the reasons been mentioned previously at least. The members of this group are taught to learn a second language and the methods used in teaching are believed to be better than the methods used for the rest of the groups, because these methods involve well-prepared materials that aid the learning of the second language. The consequences of failure in learning the language and being bilingual are small and this might result that people of this group will use the mother tongue in the society and they will h ave less opportunities of getting better jobs.According to Hoffmann (1991) the members of the preceding two groups come from monolingual backgrounds. In the contrary, the members of the following two groups are from bilingual backgroundsChildren from bilingual families this group consists of children who come from bilingual families which are the families that the parents have two different mother languages. For example, a family in Finland where the fathers mother language is Finnish and the mothers is Swedish. In this case there is some pressure on the children to be able to speak with their parents in their mother tongues. Besides, the society will push and encourage the children to learn the language used officially in the country which is more likely to be the mother language of either parent, and this helps the children to integrate in the society and to be successful at school. However, in this case the children become monolingual and there are some possible problems in the r elationship between them and one or both of their parents, because these children lack complete bilingualism of both parents mother tongues. In the case of failure, the children of this group will face some problems and there might be controvert consequences within the family environment. For example, a child has negative relationship with one of the parents because he or she fails in being bilingual and learning the mother language of the father or mother.Children from linguistic minorities this group consists of children whose parents use a language of the minority. For example, a family in Canada, where both parents speak French (minority). In this case, there will be strong pressure from the society and the family on this group of children to become bilingual and learn the language of the majority (English) in order to successfully contact in that society and cope up with the others from majority groups. The methods and materials used to achieve bilingualism need to be more de veloped, because they still have not reached the level of the high expectations. In the case of failure, the children of this group will face consequences that are vista to be greater than for any of the other previous groups as Skutnabb-Kangas shows that the failure of being bilingual may be catastrophic. For example, the children might lose most of the educational and future opportunities and their contact with the society will be very limited.2.3 Reasons of being bilingualSaunders (1988, p.1) states that Fishman, a well-known writer in bilingualism, declares that more than half of the worlds tribe today uses more than one language while engaging in activities basic to human needs. Also, Baker Jones (1998) add that nowadays, most people in the world live in bilingual environments where two or more languages are used. Numerous causes contribute to the emergence and dominance of bilingualism. There are various optional or compulsory factors. According to Baker Jones (1998), emig ration, economic mint and colonisation are main factors that facilitated the dominance of bilingualism over monolingualism. Emigration is a major factor of being bilingual, whereas emigrants move from their own countries to other countries, because of various reasons. For example, some of them escape from wars or poverty in their countries to search for better manner in foreign linguistic communities. As a result, they will be forced to learn the language of the host countries and in order to have wider contact opportunities and more employ availability. According to Saunders (1988), most emigrants speak the language of the new culture and environment. In Australia, for instance, 86.3% of emigrants speak their second language more than their home languages. Saunders also states that commerce and trade are critical factors motivating people to acquire a second language. Most economic business and commercial markets involve bilingual individuals to deal with customers from multicult ural areas.Furthermore, Baker Jones (1998) highlight that the existence of bilingualism has also increased because of the mass communication systems such as television, telephone, radio and computers which increased the contacts between members of a variety of languages. (Baker Jones 1998). Another factor is the Geographical proximity of two countries which is a possible factor leading to bilingualism, where people of the two communities need the communication among each other for different purposes like trade and other social relations like marriage resulting in bilingual families.2.3.1 Education as a great reason of being bilingualEducation is one of the most fundamental factors pushing or motivating individuals to learn a second language. Being bilingual through education can be optional or obligatory. I notice that, in all Arab Gulf countries, most school students become bilingual due to their learning of English as a compulsory subject. However, there are some students, inclu ding colleges and universities students, who learn their second language English as an optional subject. The learning of English in these countries seems to be the result of the international relations between them and the United Kingdom. It is worth mentioning that the main focus of my research paper is being bilingual due to education. Adding to the above motives of bilingualism, there are different bilingual education programmes that have been suggested as aiding the increase of bilingualism. (Baker Jones 1998).According to Baker Jones (1998), bilingual education has been widely considered as the capability of using two languages at school. However, it is a more complex phenomenon. Baker (1988) notes that bilingual education could be referred to any program intenting to teach students a second language besides their mother tongue at school Moreover, Hamers Blanc (2000, p.321) mentions that the term bilingual education is used to describe a variety of educational programs invo lving two or more languages to varying degrees. While, Bialystok (2001) asserts that Brisk describes that the term bilingual education is used in a different way in a number of different countries. For example, in the USA, bilingual education means teaching English to children whose native language is not English. In Europe, it refers to the education used in schools where two languages are involved in teaching different school subjects. These various definitions of bilingual education assure the complexity of this phenomenon.Ferguson et al., (1977) cited in Baker Jones (1998, p.465) provides a number of aims of bilingual education. Some of them are as the followingBilingual education used to assimilate individuals or groups into the mainstream of society to socialize with people for full participation in the community.To enable people to communicate with the outside world.To provide language skills which are remarkable, aiding employment and status.To deepen understanding of langu age and culture.To give equal status in law of language of unequal status in daily life.The above aims show that bilingual education does not always concern the use of two languages in the classroom and it takes various classifications, where there are weak and strong forms of bilingual education programmes. The weak forms of bilingual education programmes aim to make children of minority language learn and transfer to the language and culture of majority resulting in monolingualism or limited bilingualism. In contrast, the strong forms of bilingual education aim to make students proficient in their own language as well as the language of majority resulting in full bilingualism.According to Baker (1988), bilingual education is classified to elitist bilingualism and folk bilingualism in accordance to the incentives of being bilingual. Elitist bilingualism is regarded as a reward offered to certain special individuals by government. Some students, for instance, are rewarded by being a llowed to study abroad or study in prestigious universities in their countries. On the other hand, folk bilingual education is deemed a crucial need people have to meet in order to remain alive. As mentioned in the previous section that when immigrants move to a new place, they acquire the language of that place so that they can interact with people there.Bilingual education is also categorised into immersion and submersion bilingual education based on the use of both languages in learning. The immersion education is belongs to the strong forms of bilingual education. In immersion education, students are allowed to speak their mother tongue while experiencing their subjects and communicating with teachers. They learn the second language gradually as time goes by. Baker (1993) states that the immersion bilingual education started in Canada in 1965 where an investigate was done on a class of pupils and the aims were to make those pupils competent in using French and to reach good ach ievement levels in the curriculum involving the English language as well as appreciating the culture and traditions of French speaking Canadians and English speaking Canadians. On the other hand, students are not allowed to speak their home language in the submersion bilingual education, which is one of the weak forms of bilingual education. They are taught all their subjects in their second language.According to the major used language, bilingual education can be also categorised into transitional and concern or enrichment bilingual educations. The weak form transitional bilingual education essentially aims to develop and make students fluent in one language only, which is the majority language. Therefore, this bilingual education focuses on the bilinguals first language in the learning procedures with some extra classes to learn the second language leading to a limited bilingualism. For example, in the USA and Europe, the minority of languages are taken into account and cured i n order to make the minority groups to be able to continue the education in English or other majority languages. While, the strong form maintenance or enrichment bilingual education aims to teach children their subjects with both languages to guarantee that children get good levels of proficiency in both languages. Baker indicates that some students are taught some subjects such as grammar in their native language, while mathematics is learned in the second language. Consequently, students master both languages, and the two languages are developed simultaneously with complete bilingualism. This type of education is used for example in Canada and Wales as Baker (1988, p.47) shows that English speakers are taught French or Welsh to enable them to be fully bilingual (Baker 1988). I assume that maintenance or enrichment bilingual education refers to the same kind of education used in Oman but, here, the government uses the term dual education to refer to it.2.4 Social attitudes towards bilingualismAttitudes are the internal thoughts, feelings and tendencies in behaviours that an individual embodies in various contexts. They are difficult to be measured and significant in the thinking and they influence behaviours of individuals and groups. Language attitudes have a pivotal role in the learning of a second language or the expiration of the native language. For example, research indicates that an individual will learn a language faster and better than others if his or her attitudes towards that language are positive. Moreover, bilingual education is also influenced by the attitudes of bilinguals being taught where their attitudes will be the reason behind the success and development or the failure of a bilingual education programme. (Baker Jones 1998).According to Baker Jones (1998), there are different types of attitudes to languages. The one related to this research study is the attitude to learning a new language since this paper considers the effects of learn ing English as a new language on HCT foundation year students social life in Oman.International research focused on the motivations and reasons that make students learn new languages has found that some individuals have the ability to learn a second language quicker and better ways and this due to their positive attitudes towards that certain language and this has been indicated by a research as I mentioned in the first paragraph of this section that positive attitudes to a language will aid the learning of that language.Also, research has found that people in England and the USA have less positive attitudes towards learning a second language than people in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and mainland Europe, where in the latter places bilingualism is more typical, desirable, and valuable. The reasons might be the consideration of English as a dominant language crossways the world, so people need to learn it for better employments purposes, wider range of contacts and relationships, a s well as travel (Baker Jones 1998).Attitudes to a language are categorised into unifying and instrumental attitudes. Integrative attitudes are the ones that people have when they seek for example, jobs require a second language, read the literature of a second language, socialise with natives of a second language and all this in order to learn that second language and identify different language communities. In the contrary, Instrumental attitudes are the ones that people have when learning a second language for different purposes. For example, they learn a language to pass exams, to find better and more job opportunities, or to help their children in their bilingual education programmes (Baker Jones 1998).Baker Jones (1998) also note that research explains that collective attitudes and motivations are more helpful in making individuals proficient in the second language, because they provide them with positive attitudes resulting in long term motivation to learn a language, wh ile instrumental attitudes provide short term motivation that will fade for example, an individual has passed in the exam and reached the goals of learning a second language. However, the opposite is a possibility where instrumental attitudes and motivation would be more powerful than integrative attitudes and motivation in learning a language. For example, in India, some Indian students gave instrumental reasons for learning English rather than integrative reasons. They show that English is important in education and future employment and without the need for them the students would not have learned English.In accordance to the data self-collected for this research study, the case is that most of the foundation year students at HCT in Oman provided a mixture of both instrumental and integrative reasons for learning English and it can be noticed that instrumental reasons have greater effect than the integrative reasons and this will be discussed in the following chapter.Skutnabb-Ka ngas (1981) states that bilingualism has been seen in a very negative way in the past and as time was passing by the attitudes towards bilingualism have changed and the negativity has diminished. For example, at the beginning of the twentieth century, there were many statements and investigations that have negative attitudes to bilingualism. They stated that bilingual individuals are for example, lazy, stupid, unreliable, morally inferior, and so on.Romaine (1995, p.303) has conducted a study to investigate attitudes relating to a second language in the Punjabi/English bilingual community in Britain. Romaine has found out that most of her subjects believe that culture is deeply affected by language, for culture cannot be protect without conserving language. In this particular studied community, learners are only taught their second language, which is English, in schools regarding to the assumption that they have already mastered their home language. Therefore, Romaine has reported that the majority of her samples, including parents, prefer their children to be taught using their home language rather than the second language regardless of the latters language qualities. Romaines study shows that monolingual parents feel embarrassed when their bilingual children speak the second language, widely in the society and even in front of the traditional and older generation relatives and guests. Romaines study somehow conforms to the results that Huddy and Sears (1984) have found in their survey implemented for 1,570 non Hispanic subjects. They have discovered that people often consider bilingual education as a great factor affecting their culture and language. However, it is obvious that most countries all over the world implementing bilingual education, regardless of its classifications, teach their students English. Those countries believe in the great benefits of having a second language like English.White et al., (2002) declare that New Zealand offers non-English native speakers great opportunities to learn English, for it believes that English is currently very crucial in all life aspects. English skills should be improved as it is critical in facilitating social contacts, in enhancing employment and educational opportunities, and in providing the basis for p

Structures Used in The Sound and the Fury Essay -- Sound and the Fury

Structures Used in The Sound and the Fury In Christian and Freudian Structures, Carvel Collins points out some interesting systems used by Faulkner in The Sound and The Fury. Collins refers to the first system Faulkner uses as a Christian structure, which shows how all three Compson sons are in parallel with Christ. When discussing the Christian structure, Collins says that it is important for the reader to know that three of the four sections are set on Easter Sunday and the two days preceding it (71). First, he discusses the Quentin section because it dates back to a thorium with the other sections being on Friday (Jason), Saturday (Benjy), and Sunday (fourth section). The Thursday in which the Quentin section takes place symbolizes Christs experience on Holy Thursday and some points of similarity are 1) Quentinss Last Supper with Shreve, Gerald, and their companions in the picnic, in which they drink wine. (Wine in biblical terms symbolizes the blood of Christ.)2) The breaking of the bread with the little Italian girl (bread=body of Christ).3) Quentins tortured conversation with his father stands out in his memories which takes place on the same day of the week as the event of Christ crying out in torturing upon his father and4) Quentin is captured and taken before a court, just as Christ was. Next in history was Good Friday which compares to the Jason section. One event that took place on Good Friday was that disciple took her (Christs mother) into his own (John 19). Christs mother was in association with her son, just like Mrs. Compson and Jason Jason was the only child in which she cared for. Jasons name also seems to be significant because it was used for Jesus by Hellenized Jews. One ... ...epresents the ego, which Freud presents as a battleground between the urges of the id and the restraints of the super-ego and Jason at that of the repressive super-ego (73). apply these Freudian terms and characteristics, the three Compson sons merge into one wi th Benjamin representing the id, having only instinct and does not care about time. He goes to sleep at the stop of his section. Then in the first sentence of the Quentin section, Quentin wakes up aware of the time (ego first part of the personality to become aware of time) (74). full treatment Cited Collins, Carvel Christian and Freudian Structures. Twentieth Century Interpretations of The Sound and The Fury. Ed. Michael H. Cowan. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall, Inc., 1968. 71-74. Life Applications Bible for Students. The New King James Version. Illinois Tyndale Publications, Inc., 1994.

Free Hamlet Essays: Essay on Hamlet the Hero :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

Hamlet the Hero   There are various ways to define a hero. There is an unending amount of people who are heroes. A hero arsehole be, one who exhibits courage and/or daring, a hero can be, one who is supremely terrible or self-sacrificing, a hero can be a champion or a winner. A hero can save the day, or evening save your life. A hero can be that normal person you see just walking down the street. According to either of these definitions, Prince Hamlet can definitely be identified as a hero. For his words and actions, clearly exhibit such label, and give one the right and reason to say so. nevertheless two months dead-- my poor aims bodywhy she married with my uncle, My fathers brother, but no more like my fatherEre stock-still the salt of most unrighteous tearsBut break, my heart, for I must hold my tongue Hamlet painfully moans to himself. It is clear at the beginning of the pushover that Hamlet was sufferingemotionally. It hurt him to see his mother marry so soon after his fathers death and Hamlet matte up but since no one else seemed to feel his pain and be mourning with him. Its safe to conclude that Hamlet had a commendable and upright relationship with his father whom he admired. Unless one was not as courageous or as confident as Hamlet, we wouldve complained and tried to ruin the marriage. Prince Hamlet on the other hand, showed rattling(a) skills by putting others first. He kept his pain to himself and didnt want to cause any difficulties with the townspeople or family.   He shows this self-sacrifice ability formerly again when King Claudius tried to convince him to stay at home, rather than going away to school. He says You are most immediate to our throneFor your aim In going back to school in Wittenberg, It is most retrograde to our desire, And we beseech you, bend you to remain Here in the cheer and comfort of our eye. big businessman Gertrude reinforces that request when she said, Let not thy mother lose her prayers, H amlet. I pray thee, stay with us. Go not to Wittenberg. Even though the young Prince Hamlet felt more at home and comfortable with his friends at school in Wittenberg, he respectfully replied, I shall in all my best obey you, madam.   Lady, shall I lie in your lapI mean, my head upon your lapThats a fair thought to lie between a maids legs Hamlet atrociously says to Ophelia, as he was anxiously awaiting for the play to finally begin.